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The largest producers of tantalum are Australia and Africa, most niobium comes from Brazil. Rare Earth Elements
Gabbard, A. 1993, Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger?, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review, Vol. 26, Nos. 3&4IAEA Technical Reports Series no. 419, p 84.NORM VII reported 29,000 Bq/kg Th-232 for zircon in Nigeria Radon in homes is one occurrence of NORM which may give rise to concern and action to control it, by ventilation.
One afternoon, the boys are riding their bikes outside Norm's house. By accident, Mikey crashes into Norm's garage and smashes a valuable china tea set. Unfortunately, Norm's teenage neighbour, Chelsea, films the whole thing and posts the video on YouTube! This means war and Norm's determined to get his revenge... European Commission (Directorate-General for Energy and Transport), 2003 Radiation Protection 135: Effluent and dose control from European Union NORM industries: Assessment of current situation and proposal for a harmonised Community approach, Volume 1: Main Report. The list of isotopes that contribute to natural radiation can be divided into those materials which come from the ground (terrestrial sources – the vast majority) and those which are produced as a result of the interaction of atmospheric gases with cosmic rays (cosmogenic). NORM in the oil and gas industry poses a problem to workers particularly during maintenance, waste transport and processing, and decommissioning. In particular Pb-210 deposits and films, as a beta emitter, is only a concern when pipe internals become exposed. External exposure due to NORM in the oil and gas industry are generally low enough not to require protective measures to ensure that workers stay beneath their annual dose limits (such as set out by the IAEA basic safety standards). Internal exposures can be minimized by hygiene practices. Metals and smelting McBride et al., 1977, Radiological Impact of Airborne Effluents of Coal-Fired and Nuclear Power Plants, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL-5315The main radionuclide in scrap from the oil and gas industry is radium-226, with a half-life of 1600 years as it decays to radon. Those in nuclear industry scrap are cobalt-60 and caesium-137, with much shorter half-lives. Application of a 0.3 mSv/yr dose limit results in a clearance level for Ra-226 of 500 Bq/kg for oil/gas scrap, compared with 10 Bq/kg for nuclear material.
Radon also occurs in natural gas at up to 37,000 Bq/m 3, but by the time it gets to consumers the radon has largely decayed. However, the solid decay products then contaminate gas processing plants, and this manifestation of NORM is an occupational health issue, as discussed above. Australian Nuclear Forum Inc., Information Paper No. 1, August 2002,Trace Elements in Australian Coals,If the scale has an activity of 30,000 Bq/kg it is 'contaminated', according to Victorian regulations. This means that for Ra-226 scale (decay series ofnine progeny) the level of Ra-226 itself is 3300 Bq/kg. For Pb-210 scale (decay series of three) the level is 10,000 Bq/kg. These figures refer to the scale, not the overall mass of pipes or other material (cf Recycling section below).A 2010 analytical report shows Pb-210 scale at 18.6 MBq/kg from a pipeline in Canada.
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