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Another kind of twinning, called penetration twinning, appears as crystals that seem to have grown through each other. In such twins, two domains share a volume of atoms, not just a plane of atoms. The twinned staurolites in Figure 4.40 are good examples of penetration twins. The staurolite specimen includes both a cruciform (cross-like) twin, sometimes called a fairy-cross, and a V-twin that resemble slightly the twinned gypsum on the left. The fluorite crystals in Figure 4.37 also display penetration twins. 4.41 Orthoclase crystals with penetration twins 4.42 Idealized drawing of twinned orthoclase The discovery of crystalline forms of organic salts is of interest in the pharmaceutical sector, particularly in the formulation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The discovery of a crystalline organic salt requires exposure of the organic cation (or anion) of interest, in combination with its native counterion, to a wide range of alternative counterions. In each case the least soluble analyte counterion combination would be expected to crystallise from solution. Thus, successful screening methods must allow a wide range of counterions to be investigated and consequently considerable effort has been applied in the development of high-throughput methods for pharmaceutical salt crystallisation. 104 Early work by Spingler and co-workers has examined the crystallisation of organic cation salts 105 through the use of nano-scale vapour diffusion methods designed and widely utilised in protein crystallisation. Spingler's nano-crystallisation methodology was created to allow high-throughput parallel screening of conditions for organic salt crystal formation with minimal sample usage (requiring ∼100 nL of analyte solution in each experiment), yet still providing crystals suitable for SCXRD analysis. Forms may be closed, meaning that the form can completely enclose a volume of space, or open, meaning that it cannot. The cubic and octahedral forms are examples of closed forms. All the forms of the isometric system are closed, while all the forms of the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are open. A crystal's faces may all belong to the same closed form, or they may be a combination of multiple open or closed forms. [11]

Precipitation depends on a number of factors. As long as kinetic energy is high, or water is not saturated, no crystals will form. Ions will bond temporarily, only to break apart and return to solution. This can change, however, if conditions change.

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Glass manufacturers heat the mineral ingredients to between 1,550 and 1,600 °C (2,820 and 2,910 °F), producing a homogeneous melt as CO 2 and H 2O escape into the atmosphere. Quenching, to produce a final glass, is done in various ways depending on the product wanted. S. Urban, R. Brkljača, M. Hoshino, S. Houkou Lee and M. Fujita, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2016, 55, 2678–2682 CrossRef CAS PubMed. If you’re new to the crystal world, it’s easy to get overwhelmed. There’s big crystals, small crystals, crystal spheres, crystal hearts, crystals for charging other crystals—with all these choices, it’s hard to know where to start. That’s why we’re boiling it down with this essential tutorial on crystals for beginners. International Union of Crystallography (1992). "Report of the Executive Committee for 1991". Acta Crystallogr. A. 48 (6): 922–946. doi: 10.1107/S0108767392008328. PMC 1826680. A similar process – similar to crystallization from magma – occurs when minerals precipitate from water to form aqueous minerals. Aqueous means involving water. Because water may contain ions of many different sorts, a number of different aqueous minerals are possible.

Crystal clusters are one of the most beautiful occurrences in nature. A cluster happens when many points form on the same matrix. Because a cluster has so many points, it is believed to vibrate a higher energy. Having a cluster in your home or space will ensure that it remains elevated with the energy you want to cultivate. Tumbled Stones As magma cools, kinetic energy decreases when atoms slow down. Eventually, if magma cools sufficiently, atoms will slow down enough so that some bonds will begin to persist. This is the beginning of the formation of crystals from a melt, and the beginning of the formation of igneous minerals. Initial crystallization creates small nuclei, many of which continue as the centers of crystals during continued growth. Because of high temperatures and the molten state of magma, atoms are quite mobile and easily move toward the nuclei and to surfaces of growing crystals. So crystals may become large, like the dark colored pyroxene and light grey plagioclase in the gabbro in Figure 4.9. S. L. Morissette, Ö. Almarsson, M. L. Peterson, J. F. Remenar, M. J. Read, A. V. Lemmo, S. Ellis, M. J. Cima and C. R. Gardner, Adv. Drug Delivery Rev., 2004, 56, 275–300 CrossRef CAS PubMed. Twinning comes at all scales and may be difficult to detect. Sometimes we can see it with the naked eye, sometimes we can only see it with a microscope, and sometimes we cannot detect it without more sophisticated devices. As with many objects used for divination and healing, a crystal can only do harm in the wrong hands. A crystal healer only uses a crystal as a tool. A great crystal does not make a great crystal healer, just as a great paintbrush does not make a great painter. You do need to take some care if you are looking for a crystal healer. If you cannot get a recommendation from a previous client, speak to the healer before accepting treatment. If you don't feel you would trust them in some everyday matter, neither should you trust them with your well-being. You should try to buy crystals from a reputable supplier and, after receiving them, it is wise to cleanse them (see above) of any negative energy that they may previously have absorbed. Use your intuition and you cannot go far wrong. If one day you feel a crystal no longer belongs in your home, it may be time to give it away. As you change you may find that you want different crystals around you, although many will stay with you happily for a long time.

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Michael Hall is a Reader in Organic and Biological Chemistry at the Newcastle University. He gained an MChem from the University of Oxford in 1999, followed by a DPhil in Organic Chemistry in 2003. He subsequently undertook PDRA positions at University College Dublin, on the synthesis of photodynamic therapy agents, and at the ESPCI Paris, on the total synthesis of phoslactomycin. In 2007 he joined Newcastle University as an independent researcher, and in 2020 launched Indicatrix Crystallography Ltd, together with Dr Probert, to provide ENaCt crystallisation technology to the pharmaceutical industry.