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With respect to the satisfactory from income for farmers, the cost of cultivation was high because of the high cost of local workers during COVID-19. The foreign workers with low wage could not enter the provinces because of the movement control by the government. Farmers had to use local workers with high wage. Another issue was the price of rice that did not increase during harvesting time. The farmers had to sell the products at a low price to brokers because they could not store rice. For health and safety of farmers, 98% of the farmers had health and safety issues because of high stress. For the marketing of rice in Iran, most of the farmers were not satisfied about marketing since there was no good marketing in harvesting time. The government fixed the rice price by importing rice in harvesting season. Rice farms in Iran consisted of mostly small farms (smaller than 10 ha) owned by smallholder. Most of them were not contracted with rice company. They usually employed temporary labours when needed. Paddy rice is not a different kind of rice but rather a stage in the lifecycle of rice. The term “paddy” is used to refer to the rice plant, Oryza sativa, in its primary growth stage, specifically when it is still in the husk on the field. Once harvested and threshed, removing the outer husk, it becomes what we commonly refer to as rice. Why is Paddy Called Rice? A 100kg bag of paddy rice is now sold at the rate of N22,000 as against N16,000 sold at this period last year.
The third step of S-LCA was the social life cycle impact assessment (S-LCIA). There were two steps involved: (1) characterization and (2) weighting. In the current study, the method for S-LCIA was the reference points approach based on Parent et al. ( 2010). According to the UNEP 2020 Guideline, the reference point approach was used when the aim of conducting S-LCA was to assess the social performance of products (UNEP 2020). The reference unit for wage and income are ringgit and rial for Malaysia and Iran, respectively. Other social indicators are presented in percentages. 3.10 Characterization Blust, Robert; Trussel, Stephen. " *pajay — rice in the field; rice plant". Austronesian Comparative Dictionary . Retrieved 29 June 2019.Rice cultivation did not show a good performance for farmers in Iran with regard to satisfactory from income (0.14%), health and safety (2%), and marketing (2.4%).
Shirazi MA (2014) Seyed Abbas Hosseinijou. Saeed Mansour & Mohsen Akbarpour Shirazi. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0658-1 So the water fills one higher than the rest, then overflows to the next highest and repeats itself over and over.Center of Excellence for Climate Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation, Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
The Banaue Rice Terraces are an example of paddy fields in the country. They are located in Banaue in Northern Luzon, Philippines and were built by the Ifugaos 2,000 years ago. [42] Streams and springs found in the mountains were tapped and channeled into irrigation canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. Other notable Philippine paddy fields are the Batad Rice Terraces, the Bangaan Rice Terraces, the Mayoyao Rice Terraces and the Hapao Rice Terraces. [43] Alternate wetting and drying (AWD), the practice of allowing the water table to drop below the soil surface at one or multiple points during a growing season, is an effective alternative to continuous flooding, proven to reduce methane emissions by as much as 48%. The practice is also cost-saving for farmers, as it requires a third less water than continuous flooding and does not compromise yield. This research used social-LCA to compare the social performance of paddy rice production in different farming methods. In Malaysia, the farmers use modern technology to plant rice. However, in Iran, rice cultivation is a combination of traditional and modern technology. The result indicted that the social performance of workers and farmer stakeholders in modern and multiple farming were significantly different. The workers and farmers using modern agriculture showed good performance with high score due to the fact that modern agriculture had lower cost, and slightly more yield, contributing to satisfactory from income for farmers. Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, including both indica and japonica, spring from a domestication of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon by cultures associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-speakers. This occurred 13,500 to 8,200 years ago south of the Yangtze River in present-day China. [5] [6] Model of a Liangzhu culture (3400 to 2250 BC) ancient city surrounded by a moat with rice paddiesPaddies are small either because first, the land is steep and narrow terraces are needed for water control or second, land holdings are small and fragmented, and the small paddies reflect land ownership. Land leveling and/or consolidation can reduce the need for small paddies. The reasons paddies tend to be small is that they are usually farmed by itinerant farmers who cannot pay to have their field leveled to a single elevation for equal flooding. Each of the paddies tends to be level throughout but not with the other paddies. Different levels also allows excess water to flow to paddies of lower elevation. Rice cultivation in Iran for the local community did not show good performance regarding health and safety because of burning of rice residue. Around 62% of local Iranian people reported air pollution from rice residue burning. However, the performance was good in Malaysia ad Iran in term of job opportunity for local community.
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