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Sequencing mtDNA and Y-DNA sampled from a wide range of indigenous populations revealed ancestral information relating to both male and female genetic heritage, and strengthened the "out of Africa" theory and weakened the views of multiregional evolutionism. [247] Aligned in genetic tree differences were interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin. [248] Based on archaeological and paleontological evidence, it has been possible to infer, to some extent, the ancient dietary practices [50] of various Homo species and to study the role of diet in physical and behavioral evolution within Homo. [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9–1.6 Ma, whose relation to Homo habilis is not yet clear. Main articles: Archaic humans, Early modern human, Archaic human admixture with modern humans, and Human §Evolution Reconstruction of early Homo sapiens from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco c. 315 000 years BP A new comparison of the human and chimpanzee genomes suggests that after the two lineages separated, they may have begun interbreeding... A principal finding is that the X chromosomes of humans and chimpanzees appear to have diverged about 1.2million years more recently than the other chromosomes.
The word homo, the name of the biological genus to which humans belong, is Latin for "human". [e] It was chosen originally by Carl Linnaeus in his classification system. [f] The word "human" is from the Latin humanus, the adjectival form of homo. The Latin "homo" derives from the Indo-European root * dhghem, or "earth". [218] Linnaeus and other scientists of his time also considered the great apes to be the closest relatives of humans based on morphological and anatomical similarities. [219] Darwin [ edit ] Altering over many thousands of years, these shifting temperatures have been determined by variations in Earth's orbit around the sun. While greater distances have resulted in colder cycles, shifts closer to the ball of heathave led to warmer, interglacial periods. Bernard Wood noted that Paranthropus co-existed with the early Homo species in the area of the "Oldowan Industrial Complex" over roughly the same span of time. Although there is no direct evidence which identifies Paranthropus as the tool makers, their anatomy lends to indirect evidence of their capabilities in this area. Most paleoanthropologists agree that the early Homo species were indeed responsible for most of the Oldowan tools found. They argue that when most of the Oldowan tools were found in association with human fossils, Homo was always present, but Paranthropus was not. [191]
Whitehouse, David (June 9, 2003). "When humans faced extinction". BBC News. London: BBC. Archived from the original on September 4, 2010 . Retrieved January 5, 2007. Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, [77] lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000 [78] to about 28,000 years ago. [79] If an alternative theory of what is driving climate change rather than greenhouse gases would be supported by research and evidence, such work would be groundbreaking," said Benjamin Cook. "It would be Nobel Prize-level study. But we do not see this research." the complex separation of modern human ancestors from archaic human groups about 300,000 to one million years ago Established as a UN body in 1988, the IPCC has 195 member countriesand assesses the science related to climate change. It has attributed atmospheric CO2 increase to anthropogenic (human-caused) emissions, with three-quarters of them coming from fossil fuel burning, and the rest from land use change.
Anthropologists describe modern human behavior to include cultural and behavioral traits such as specialization of tools, use of jewellery and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (such as grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks, as well as more general traits such as language and complex symbolic thinking. Debate continues as to whether a "revolution" led to modern humans ("big bang of human consciousness"), or whether the evolution was more gradual. [47] In their seminal 1967 paper in Science, Sarich and Wilson estimated the divergence time of humans and apes as four to five million years ago, [233] at a time when standard interpretations of the fossil record gave this divergence as at least 10 to as much as 30million years. Subsequent fossil discoveries, notably "Lucy", and reinterpretation of older fossil materials, notably Ramapithecus, showed the younger estimates to be correct and validated the albumin method.
Migration and the Peopling of the Earth
Stone tools are first attested around 2.6million years ago, when hominins in Eastern Africa used so-called core tools, choppers made out of round cores that had been split by simple strikes. [285] This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age), until 50,000–30,000 years ago, and the Upper Paleolithic, (Late Stone Age), 50,000–10,000 years ago. Modern humans flourished through ancient supervolcano eruption 74,000 years ago: Modern humans flourished through ancient supervolcano eruption". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on January 24, 2019 . Retrieved January 24, 2019. In May 2021, the average global level of atmospheric CO2 hit 415 ppm . The last time CO2 levels were so elevated was some3 million years ago, when sea levels were around 30 meters (100 feet) higher and modern humans didn't even exist . The earliest member of the genus Homo is Homo habilis which evolved around 2.8million years ago. [32] H.habilis is the first species for which we have positive evidence of the use of stone tools. They developed the Oldowan lithic technology, named after the Olduvai Gorge in which the first specimens were found. Some scientists consider Homo rudolfensis, a larger bodied group of fossils with similar morphology to the original H.habilis fossils, to be a separate species, while others consider them to be part of H.habilis—simply representing intraspecies variation, or perhaps even sexual dimorphism. The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living. a b c d e f Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; etal. (December 23, 2010). "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia". Nature. 468 (7327): 1053–1060. Bibcode: 2010Natur.468.1053R. doi: 10.1038/nature09710. hdl: 10230/25596. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 4306417. PMID 21179161.
Not to be confused with Pongidae, an obsolete family which grouped together orangutans, gorillas, and chimps to separate them from humans Genetic evidence has also been employed to compare species within the genus Homo, investigating gene flow between early modern humans and Neanderthals, and to enhance the understanding of the early human migration patterns and splitting dates. By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor. Homo rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested that this was a specimen of Homo habilis, but this has not been confirmed. [63] Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation – rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone – and sampling bias probably contribute to this problem.It's true that within its 4.5-billion-year history, planet Earth has experienced periods of lesser and greater warmth. human evolution, the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now-extinct primates. Viewed zoologically, we humans are Homo sapiens, a culture-bearing upright-walking species that lives on the ground and very likely first evolved in Africa about 315,000 years ago. We are now the only living members of what many zoologists refer to as the human tribe, Hominini, but there is abundant fossil evidence to indicate that we were preceded for millions of years by other hominins, such as Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and other species of Homo, and that our species also lived for a time contemporaneously with at least one other member of our genus, H. neanderthalensis (the Neanderthals). In addition, we and our predecessors have always shared Earth with other apelike primates, from the modern-day gorilla to the long-extinct Dryopithecus. That we and the extinct hominins are somehow related and that we and the apes, both living and extinct, are also somehow related is accepted by anthropologists and biologists everywhere. Yet the exact nature of our evolutionary relationships has been the subject of debate and investigation since the great British naturalist Charles Darwin published his monumental books On the Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871). Darwin never claimed, as some of his Victorian contemporaries insisted he had, that “man was descended from the apes,” and modern scientists would view such a statement as a useless simplification—just as they would dismiss any popular notions that a certain extinct species is the “ missing link” between humans and the apes. There is theoretically, however, a common ancestor that existed millions of years ago. This ancestral species does not constitute a “missing link” along a lineage but rather a node for divergence into separate lineages. This ancient primate has not been identified and may never be known with certainty, because fossil relationships are unclear even within the human lineage, which is more recent. In fact, the human “family tree” may be better described as a “family bush,” within which it is impossible to connect a full chronological series of species, leading to Homo sapiens, that experts can agree upon.
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