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Stirling A (2007) Risk, precaution and science: towards a more constructive policy debate: talking point on the precautionary principle. EMBO Rep 8(4):309–315 I think the whole alert level thing is […] an attempt to better communicate with the public, media [and] help scientists convey the message. Most people put too much emphasis on that and not enough with the basic problem, which is communication between scientists and non-scientists (HVO senior scientists 4). Hill DP, Mangan MT, McNutt SR (2017) Volcanic unrest and hazard communication in Long Valley volcanic region, California. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/11157_2016_32

This refers to the amount of volcanic activity. “ Active” means there’s regular activity, “ dormant” means there’s been recent activity but the volcano is currently quiet, and “ extinct” means it’s been so long since the last eruption that it’s unlikely to ever erupt again. 7. Volcanoes can be a variety of shapes. De la Cruz-Reyna S, Tilling RI (2008) Scientific and public responses to the ongoing volcanic crisis at Popocatépetl volcano, Mexico: importance of an effective hazards-warning system. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 170:121–134 Compac stone isn’t only suited for standard uses & applications e.g. quartz worktops. There is an infinite range of decorative possibilities and solutions. Dining table tops, BBQ tops, paved shopping centre floors or cladded bar tops & walls. This company brings pigments, resins, ground stone + water-resistant agents, then combines them to create glistening marvels that also act as functional, practical tools facilitating everyday kitchen use. Hogel LF (1995) Standardization across Non-Standard Domains: The Case of Organ Procurement. Sci Technol Hum Values 20:482–500 Hoppe et al. 2013?Despite these variances, the possibility of developing a globally standardised VALS for ground hazards has been considered. After exploring this possibility at volcano conferences in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Scott ( 2007) concluded that there cannot be international uniformity in VALS due to the wide range in volcanic eruptions and hazards, and the recurrence of activity that requires a wide variety of needs to be catered for. Scott questioned the standardisation process, asking if it actually “undermines the important function they achieve” (Scott 2007, p. 90). A volcano's eruptive history can provide some clues. However, because only a small number of the world's volcanoes have a known history it is extremely difficult to predict future eruptions, particularly for certain types of volcanoes. Scientists use the repose period, or the time between eruptions, to indicate the expected size and strength of an eruption. Consistently long repose periods may indicate that a volcano's eruptions are usually large and explosive. However, sometimes there is no clear relationship in the length of time between eruptions and the nature of the eruptions. They can be found on the ocean floor and under ice caps, too! 10.Lava from a volcano can reach 1,250°C! Bailey RA, USGS (1983) The volcano hazards program: objectives and long-range plans. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston Douglas M, Wildavsky A (1983) Risk and culture: an essay on the selection of technological and environmental dangers. Univ of California Press

Swanson DA, Holcomb RT (1990) Regularities in growth of the Mount St. Helens dacite dome, 1980–1986. In Lava flows and domes (pp. 3–24). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg Shield volcanoes have a broad, flattened dome-like shape created by layers of hot and runny lava flowing over its surface and cooling. When magma is very hot and runny, gases can escape easily. Eruptions of this type of magma are gentle, with large amounts of magma reaching the surface to form vast lava flows. Whilst large volcanic eruptions gain the attention of the media, many people who live around active volcanoes in the USA are affected by hazards that persist over long periods, such as noxious gases (e.g. Long Valley caldera), and low-level seismicity (e.g. Long Valley, Yellowstone and Hawaii). Such ever-present hazards are not captured in the VALS, despite providing discomfort to local populations. A Volcano Awareness System could help accommodate short to medium-term changes and indicate the level of hazard/risk at each volcano and the anticipated severity of a hazard such as a lahar, ash or gas emissions to user groups. Removing both the alert level descriptions and the focus on the eruptive activity enables the system to express awareness about the different hazards and situations in a simple design. This system could potentially be standardised nationally, potentially internationally, yet be locally operated and adapted for the local hazards and needs, and reflect temporal changes effectively. Every volcano has a diverse range of hazards in different spatial and temporal combinations, making the individual behaviour of each unique. This can make understanding the activity and issuing a warning for a volcano alert a highly complex and context-specific process. Many hazards can occur within close proximity of a volcano, whether it is active or not, in different locations (geographically), and at different times. Most are excluded from the VALS, which relates only to the occurrence of volcanic/eruptive unrest/activity, and must apply to every volcano. Many scientists stated that VALS should convey information about all volcanic hazards, whether they proximal to the volcano, i.e. volcano-centric, or distal. Some expressed the view that a warning can only be truly issued after the event has begun (CVO collaborator 2), which means that the only way to measure if a lahar has developed, or where an ash cloud is moving, is to monitor them individually. A number of the observatories have developed independent alert level systems tailored to the nature of a range of these hazards, including volcanic gases (in particular seen at HVO), lahars (CVO), volcanic ash clouds, volcanic ashfall (AVO) and hydrothermal activity (YVO). The unique individual behaviour of a volcano, each with differing hazards in differing spatial and temporal relations makes monitoring, understanding the activity and issuing a warning for a volcano alert highly complex processes.

Crona B, Hubacek K (2010) The right connections: how do social networks lubricate the machinery of natural resource governance? Ecol Soc 15(4)

Newhall C, Solidum RU (2017) Volcanic hazard communication at Pinatubo from 1991 to 2015. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/11157_2016_43 Andreastuti S, Budianto A, Paripurno ET (2017) Integrating social and physical perspectives of mitigation policy and practice in Indonesia. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/11157_2016_36

Cash et al. ( 2003) drew from more than 30 case studies to confirm that the use of institutions or procedures that span this interface between scientific and decision-making communities have been necessary to establish the usability and potential influence of scientific knowledge. The effective use, value and deployment of information across this interface depend on three interlinked criteria: the scientific credibility of the information, its relevance to the needs of stakeholders and the legitimacy of both information and the processes that produced it. Translation of scientific concepts and terminology into accessible everyday language is required to ensure that everyone involved understands why and how information is scientifically credible (Cash et al. 2003). Multi-valent communication among all involved is required to ensure that all involved, including scientific communities, fully understand relevance to stakeholder needs. The legitimacy of the information relies on the perception that the interests and influences of all those involved, including both scientific and end user groups, are included and balanced; legitimacy relies on transparency, and is enhanced by mediation arrangements.