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While long-run data on corruption is very limited, historical examples suggest that corruption has been a persistent feature of human societies over time and space. Two such examples are the sale of parliamentary seats in ‘rotten boroughs’ in England before the Reform Act of 1832, and ‘machine politics’ in the US at the turn of the 19th century (Aidt 2003). 1 were levelled against him during that time. In the Index, 180 countries across the world are scored on a scale of 0 to 100 according to how honest their public sectors are perceived to be; a high score indicates a perception of an honest public sector. Olken (2007) provides further evidence of the extent to which officials in charge of road projects responded to private incentives: he finds that (i) audits were most effective when officials faced elections soon, and (ii) village elites shifted to nepotism (the practice of hiring family members), which is a form of corruption that was harder for audits to detect. Effect of audits on missing expenditures in an Indonesian Randomized Control Trial – Figure 2 in J-pal Policy Briefcase (2012) 12 How important is the link between cultural norms and corruption? Lord's Test at centre of fixing allegations". CricInfo. ESPN. 28 August 2010 . Retrieved 10 December 2010.

In 1955, an accord was signed between Nawab Sadeq Mohammad Khan V and Lt Gen Ghulam Muhammad Malik which made the state of Bahawalpur a part of the province of West Pakistan. This geopolitical change meant that the original act needed amendments to include Bahawalpur and other regions which were originally left out of the act. Subsequently, in October 1958, an ordinance was passed to extend the act to the whole of the province of West Pakistan – this is known as the Prevention of Corruption Act (West Pakistan Extension) Ordinance, 1958. This ordinance extended the scope of the original to the districts of Karat, Kharan, Makran and Lasbela and also repealed the Bahawalpur Prevention of Corruption Act, 1950. Fisman and Miguel (2007) show that the positive correlation between corrupt behavior by diplomats ‘abroad’, and corruption perception ‘at home’, remains after controlling for factors such as national income in the diplomats’ home country, or the diplomats’ salaries. This evidence suggests that cultural norms are one of the factors that affect corrupt behavior. As we can see, people are less likely to pay bribes in countries where there are stronger institutions to support accountability. Chêne, Marie (8 August 2008). "Overview of corruption in Pakistan". U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre . Retrieved 2013-12-24. {{ cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ( help)Main article: Gupta family A protest placard depicting Gupta family member Atul Gupta at a protest against corruption during the Zuma administration. The slogan "#Not My President" on the placard explicitly links Atul Gupta with corruption and state capture associated with the Presidency of Jacob Zuma. Zuma defends relationship with Guptas – report". News24.com. 23 March 2016. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019 . Retrieved 30 March 2016. Local government the weakest link' ". Corruption Watch. 14 February 2013 . Retrieved 5 September 2022.

Hunter, Qaanitah (26 September 2014). "Jacob Zuma's secret nuke 'stitch-up' ". amaBhungane . Retrieved 27 February 2022. The Corruption Perception Index scores countries on a scale of 0-100, where 0 means that a country is perceived as highly corrupt and 100 means that a country is perceived as very clean. The indicator is representative of expert opinion, as it is constructed by taking the averages of various standardized expert surveys, including those from the Bertelsmann Foundation, the World Economic Forum, the World Bank, and many others. 2 World Bank (1993). "World Bank Report". Washington, DC: World Bank. {{ cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ( help) As we cans see from the map, this ‘revealed-preference’ measure of corruption among diplomats correlates positively with the survey-based measures of corruption we have already discussed. Diplomats from countries where corruption perception is low (e.g. Denmark) seem to be generally less likely to break parking rules abroad, even in situations in which there are no legal consequences.Bateman, Barry (25 January 2018). "Hawks Raid FS Premier's Office Over Gupta-linked Vrede Dairy Farm". Eyewitness News. Venema, Vibeke; Caroline, Davies (11 May 2023). "Imran Khan: Deadly violence in Pakistan as ex-PM charged with corruption". BBC . Retrieved 2023-05-14. Rotten boroughs' were constituencies that had a very small electorate, and could thus be used by a wealthy patron to secure influence; at the turn of the 19th century in immigrant US cities, 'machine politics' involved hierarchical political organizations that provided social services and jobs in exchange for votes. For more information, see: Aidt, T. S. (2003). Economic analysis of corruption: a survey. The Economic Journal, 113(491), F632-F652. Corruption is a curse in India and amongst Muslims, especially the so-called educated and intelligentsia. Unfortunately, it is this class that is selfish and morally and intellectually corrupt. No doubt this disease is common, but amongst this particular class of Muslims it is rampant."

After Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came into power in 1973, he introduced a planned economic system to revitalise the stagnant economy. This led to the introduction of the nationalisation programme bringing entire private industrial corporations under the government ownership. [19] In 1974, Bhutto cancelled the fourth five-year plans bypassing the recommendations of the Planning Commission, focusing entirely on broadening government control over private business enterprises. In doing so, Bhutto's government began the politicisation of economic planning. Per R. Klitgaard [27] corruption will occur if the corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied by the likelihood of being caught and prosecuted. Hashmi, Tariq Mahmood (14 April 2008). "A need for uniform education system". Dawn . Retrieved 2013-12-26.Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly (5 November 2013). "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Right to Information Act, 2013" (PDF). Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . Retrieved 29 December 2013. {{ cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ( help) Supreme Court begins Hajj corruption hearings". Dawn. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 25 December 2013 . Retrieved 2013-12-25.

Corruption in South Africa includes the improper use of public resources for private ends, including bribery and improper favouritism. [1] Corruption was at its highest during the period of state capture under the presidency of Jacob Zuma and has remained widespread, negatively "affecting criminal justice, service provision, economic opportunity, social cohesion and political integrity" of South Africa. [2] Grobler, Riaan (13 November 2020). "Deputy police commissioner Bonang Mgwenya fired following corruption charges". News 24 . Retrieved 24 December 2020. Political corruption is the abuse of public power, office, or resources by elected government officials for personal gain, by extortion, soliciting or offering bribes. It can also take the form of office holders maintaining themselves in office by purchasing votes by enacting laws which use taxpayers' money. [41] Evidence suggests that corruption can have political consequences- with citizens being asked for bribes becoming less likely to identify with their country or region. [42] Government contractor Bosasa was found to have been giving senior ANC members bribes to secure lucrative government contracts and avoid investigation. After the scandal was exposed and the company entered voluntary liquidation in 2019 the CEO, Gavin Watson, died in uncertain circumstances. [102] [103] In 2023 two of the companies court appointed liquidators were shot dead in a suspected assisnation that was allegedly connected to their work tracing Bosasa's finances. [104] [105] Before the abolition of Apartheid, civil service was a pervasive medium for rent-seeking and the preferential treatment of Afrikaners. [16] Policies favouring Afrikaner cultural and educational systems, the awarding of government contracts to Afrikaner businesses and the funding of parastatal Afrikaner organisations was a common phenomenon during the era of Apartheid. The building of rural homeland states in the 1980s created ideal projects for rent-seeking with many homeland leaders presiding over massive networks of patronage. [16] A notable corruption scandal during apartheid was the Muldergate scandal that involved the improper use of public funds to conduct a pro-apartheid propaganda campaign; the scandal brought down the government of Prime Minister John Vorster.

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Kapadia, Faisal (22 June 2013). "The power of one Pakistani". The Express Tribune . Retrieved 2013-12-25. In the Renaissance fresco The Good and the Bad Judge ( Monsaraz, Portugal), the Bad Judge, depicted as having two faces, is shown taking bribes: the nobleman to the right offers him gold coins from a purse, and the villein to the left gives him a pair of partridges. Court gag on South Africa 'oilgate' report". the Guardian. 27 May 2005 . Retrieved 26 February 2022. Once again, cross-country heterogeneity stands out. In countries such as India, Yemen, Liberia and Vietnam, at least two out of three survey respondents report having paid a bribe within the past year. In Japan, the UK, and Sweden, only one in a hundred (or fewer) reports having paid a bribe in the same window of time.